The Debate Over Aspire Essay Samples

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Abortion Is An Action That Ends Pregnancy Before The Unborn

Abortion is an action that ends pregnancy before the unborn can survive outside the mother s body. Debate dates to Assyrian culture in the â€Å"fourteenth century BCE† and in early Hebrew law (Kaplan, Tischauser, Chara, 2014). Historical reasons according to Kaplan, Tischauser, Chara for debate are listed as follows: Hippocrates said â€Å"it violated a doctor s responsibility to heal†, Roman law was based on an unborn being part of the woman which makes it her decision, unwanted pregnancies are reason enough in some cultures, Christian churches see abortion as sin and murder, there is question as to when the soul develops and before then abortion is acceptable (2014). In 1973 abortion was legalized in all U.S. States, and in recent decades some countries shifted to accept it when a woman s life was â€Å"at risk or threatened† (Kaplan, Tischauser, Chara, 2014) where â€Å"rape or incest† took place, and in the U.S. â€Å"it violates a woman s privac y to prohibit abortion† (Geraldine Wagner, 2015). Other recent reasons include abortion for benefit in â€Å"stem cell research† (Streiffer, 2010), and in defining when humanity begins (i.e. embryo and fetus versus human or baby). It s important to recognize that in 2007, the Supreme Court upheld a 2003 law to ban late-term abortions (Geraldine Wagner, 2015). This paper discusses abortion from pro and con positions, providing a back and forth dialog of claim, research and evidence, and includes related ethics theories. It also provides aShow MoreRelatedAbortion : Pro Life And Pro Choice1282 Words   |  6 PagesAbortions are one of the countless subjects that every person has an interpretation about. As defined by the 2012 Merriam-Webster dictionary, an abortion is, â€Å"the conclusion of a pregnancy after, accompanied by, succeeding in, or closely shadowed by the passing of the embryo or fetus as a natural removal of a human fetus during the first 12 weeks of gest ation also known as a miscarriage, the tempted exclusion of a human fetus, or the dismissal of a fetus by a local animal often due to infection atRead MoreTaylor Meyers. Christine Capen . English 3. May 12, 2017.1076 Words   |  5 Pagesto be alive? Pro-life or Pro-choice? These two groups upon abortion will bring opinions flying in from everywhere. The topic on abortion is a very sensitive issue and always has been and probably always will remain a topic upon which we all will never agree on. Before I continue any further, for those who may not know, what exactly is an abortion? Defined in the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, an abortion is, â€Å"the termination of a pregnancy after, accompanied by, resulting in, or closely followed byRead MoreShould Abortion Be Legal?1334 Words   |  6 PagesShanieqka Manuel Professor Rockette-Rogers English 1102 23 July 2015 Should Abortion Be Legal? In Gwendolyn Brooks’ poem â€Å"the Mother† the entire theme was based on abortion. A mother was not emotionally or mentally ready to have children, so she did what needed to be done; she aborted. This poem was written in 1945 and still today’s society still has objections on pro-choice. On January 22, 1973 the US Supreme Court ruled that abortion is a fundamental right that was guaranteed by the US Constitution. InRead MoreAbortion : A Medical Procedure1213 Words   |  5 PagesAbortion is, as defined by Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary, â€Å"a medical procedure used to end a pregnancy and cause the death of the fetus.† A procedure done within the first 9 weeks of pregnancy is done with medicines and the effects are similar to that of a natural miscarriage. This medicine can also be used from 9-20 weeks into pregnancy with heavier doses of the medicine. From 7-15 weeks of pregnancy, a suction termination is performed. This is where they use anestheti c and a suction tube is insertedRead MoreJackson Kruger. Mrs. Hooks. English 11. 29 January 2017.1479 Words   |  6 PagesEnglish 11 29 January 2017 The Right to Live Abortion is one of the most controversial issues among American Citizens. Many Americans believe that life begins when a child is conceived while others insist that a child is not alive until a few months into the pregnancy. Although supporters for abortion agree that life begins during a few months into the pregnancy, they support abortion until around twenty-two weeks. This contradiction of beliefs among abortion supporters sparks anger with those who areRead MoreThe Issue Of Legalizing Abortion Essay1719 Words   |  7 Pagesissue upfront, with its ethical motivation. The argument surrounding abortion is a very topical issue in our society and dates way back to ancient days. The issue of legalizing abortion is a growing social concern as all life is sacred and valued. However, in recent years there have been two ethical arguments by the Supreme Court in legalizing abortion that of pro-life and pro-choice. Despite the legal acceptance of abortion in some countries, the matter remains an ethical concern (Jones ChalonerRead MoreAbortion Essay1014 Words   |  5 PagesAbortion Today, more than twenty-seven years since the legalization of abortion, over 30 million legal abortions have taken place in the United State. Abortions were widely used as a form of contraception in Poland when the communist party ruled the country. More than100, 000 abortions were carried out each year in Poland. To me, this issue, which is more than a simple question of women controlling their own bodies? It is a matter of life and death for an innocent humanRead MoreEssay on Abortion643 Words   |  3 PagesAbortion Abortion is a very controversial subject and many people have varied attitudes and opinions on its rights and wrongs. It is vital that in society that more and more people become anti-abortion before it is a trend that spirals out of control. Abortion means to end something before it has been made complete. There are two types of abortion, spontaneous abortionRead MoreA contemporary ethical issue which raises many diverse views and perspectives worldwide is1600 Words   |  7 Pagesdiverse views and perspectives worldwide is abortion. The Catholic Church defines abortion as â€Å"the direct and purposeful taking of the life of the unborn child. In principle, Catholic Christians believe that all life is sacred from conception until natural death, and the taking of innocent human life, whether born or unborn, is morally wrong.† As the Catholic Church teaches, Human life is sacred because from its beginning it involves the creative action of God and it remains for ever in a specialRead MoreAbortion is MURDER Essay1199 Words   |  5 Pageschild, how can we tell other people not to kill each other? Any country that accepts abortion is not teaching its people to love, rather, to use violence to get what they want† -- Mother Theresa The thought of killing to most people is bone chilling and makes the hairs on the back of the neck stand up. Abortion is unjustifiable murder because that fetus being done away with is a human being that

Lessons from Life free essay sample

I have not even reached adulthood, but already life has taught me very important lessons about life. Most of these lessons were difficult and caused pain. They made me who I am today though. The three most important lessons life taught me were about love, time with people and about my own strength. Life taught me about love in the absence of love and in the absence of feeling loved. Many children have an instant connection with their mothers. I did not have that. My biological mom was not there for me. She chose partying and other men over her husband and her own child. My dad and my biological mother divorced when I was very young. My biological mother still had custody over me though. She and her boyfriend had abused me mentally, physically and emotionally. After several years, of her disobeying court orders, she was facing jail time. In exchange for her freedom, she gave up her rights as my mother. We will write a custom essay sample on Lessons from Life or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Feelings of being unlovable and worthless followed me even after she was out of my life. I struggled with my self-worth and my purpose. Through this struggle, I learned about love. I had felt what it was like to be abandoned by someone who should have loved me. Knowing what it was like to feel unloved, I made it my mission to love others as much as I could. It does not matter if they are a stranger or not. I do my best to make sure the people I come in contact with know they’re valued and that someone cares about them. Life taught me about valuing the time you get from people through a near death experience. My dad has severe cardiac conditions that, at one point, almost took his life. For almost a year, my dad battled with the heart failure and other conditions. I was only twelve at the time. My family and I were having an extremely difficult time during this part of our life. At the time, my greatest fear was that my dad would die. I loved him immensely and he was the one who had been there my entire life. There were also so many things I felt like I would be cheated out of. It looked like he would never be asked permission to marry me. He would never walk me down the aisle or dance with me at my wedding. He would never meet my children. My mom, who adopted me when my biological mother gave up her rights, my siblings and I would never hear another joke of his. We would never be teased again by him. I wanted so much more time with him. My dad was healed by a miracle though. Almost five years ago, my dad’s doctors were telling him that he may not make it through the night. Now he is too healthy to receive a heart transplant and very much alive. What I was taught was that you do not know how much time you will have with someone. It is not a guarantee that they will live another day. That argument that you had with someone, maybe the last thing you ever say to someone. That kiss goodnight, maybe the last time you ever kiss them again. You are not promised that they’ll make it home safe or something terrible will not happen to them. The saying â€Å" live like it’s your last day† applies to other people’s lives too. Live like it’s their last day because you do not know that it is not. Another lesson I was taught, was about my strength. I am not old in the slightest, but life has already shown its monsters to me. People have shown me the worse pieces of themselves to me. Many things that I have experienced I thought would end me. At one point, they tried their hardest to. I felt so broken and battered. When I looked at myself, I someone weak and devoid of any value. God showed me through how wrong my thinking was. There was more strength in me than weakness. My strength helped me twist the ugly things about life into ways I could make sure I don’t do the same. Strength is what kept me smiling and laughing. Nothing can ruin me unless I give it permission to. My light will keep shining even though the world tried to quench it. Life taught me many valuable lessons. The three I hold closest to me are about love, time with people, and my strength. They are changed some of the biggest pieces of my personality making me who I am today. Even though many times I have begged for amnesia, I embrace my past as a mold of who I am today

Lee dong wook free essay sample

Its just that I love the boys so much to the point where it actually hurts to listen to their songs and see their gifts or vines and videos and everything and I feel so bucked up because I let myself to be consumed with a boy band that doesnt even acknowledge my existence and theres this part of me who believes that one day will be able to meet them and its Just so bucked up, everything is. I feel so bucking overprotective of them that when I see people talking chits about them I would flip. Id defend them and I hate seeing the boys with other girls I mean Im k with Lam and Louis girls though but I really hate Zany and Peppier I dont even know why and I despise It when Harry goes out with Taylor Swift and Kendall Jennet and basically everyone because well if you didnt know Im In love with him and nobody good enough for him. We will write a custom essay sample on Lee dong wook or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Im Just so bucked up, you know, Im 19 and I feel Like I should be more mature rather than getting sucked Into the whole Direction fantod but Vive been with the boys since What Makes You Beautiful and I watched all of their video Aries and I know all of their fetus Inside Jokes and I waited for all of their new music videos and its hard k because the boys have grown up and Im in tears right now.It hurts so bad. I want to let go but I cant. I know it sounds so stupid of me to be crying because of a boy band but you dont know how I feel k you dont know the attachment I feel for them and good god I listen to all of their songs I have all of their songs and its crazy its crazy its crazy! And now Im crying. Because I love the boys so much.

Free Essays on Educational Opportunities

Attending a highly selective private school has truly provided me with an exceptional foundation. Looking back on my education thus far, with so many resources and opportunities, I wish that I would have taken more of an initiative in pursuing my education. The Bishop’s School has blessed me with educational opportunities, including knowledgeable teachers who motivate and teach students through lectures, and conversations outside of the classroom, incorporating their own real life experiences into their lessons. Guided by my teachers’ passions, I am now able to see and benefit from investing myself personally in my academics as it feeds the flame for further desire to learn. One of the most important factors in preparing myself for college has been teaching myself to become interested in learning. While this may come easier to some in my setting, reaching this goal has been one of the most challenging and rewarding parts of high school. Bishop’s has also taught me how to balance my life. In my early high school years I was primarily concerned with building rich friendships and schoolwork became secondary to that effort. I felt that talking to my friend about something important in their lives was more important than finishing a piece of homework. Looking back, I think that my attention to my social life proved to be both positive and negative: I realized that I was a compassionate friend who cared about other people, but by default, compromised my schoolwork. One thing was inescapable at my small, competitive school- pressure to be successful. It was after taking US Social History at the end of sophomore year and the cathartic feeling I experienced that I realized that school has the ability to interest me and hold that interest. That class was the first elective I took, and it was one of the first classes that I forced myself to strive to do well in, which then pushed me to take more classes that were similar. By junior year... Free Essays on Educational Opportunities Free Essays on Educational Opportunities Attending a highly selective private school has truly provided me with an exceptional foundation. Looking back on my education thus far, with so many resources and opportunities, I wish that I would have taken more of an initiative in pursuing my education. The Bishop’s School has blessed me with educational opportunities, including knowledgeable teachers who motivate and teach students through lectures, and conversations outside of the classroom, incorporating their own real life experiences into their lessons. Guided by my teachers’ passions, I am now able to see and benefit from investing myself personally in my academics as it feeds the flame for further desire to learn. One of the most important factors in preparing myself for college has been teaching myself to become interested in learning. While this may come easier to some in my setting, reaching this goal has been one of the most challenging and rewarding parts of high school. Bishop’s has also taught me how to balance my life. In my early high school years I was primarily concerned with building rich friendships and schoolwork became secondary to that effort. I felt that talking to my friend about something important in their lives was more important than finishing a piece of homework. Looking back, I think that my attention to my social life proved to be both positive and negative: I realized that I was a compassionate friend who cared about other people, but by default, compromised my schoolwork. One thing was inescapable at my small, competitive school- pressure to be successful. It was after taking US Social History at the end of sophomore year and the cathartic feeling I experienced that I realized that school has the ability to interest me and hold that interest. That class was the first elective I took, and it was one of the first classes that I forced myself to strive to do well in, which then pushed me to take more classes that were similar. By junior year...

Pro Tips From Successful Writers! Good Work Habits Make All the Difference

Pro Tips From Successful Writers! Good Work Habits Make All the Difference Pro Tips From Successful Writers! Good Work Habits Make All the Difference   Many people assume that good writers are born that way. A modicum of natural talent is certainly helpful; however, when it comes to long-term writing success, good work habits make all the difference. How many gifted writers are there with half-finished work on their hard drives? The completion of a well-written project requires solid work habits, discipline, and self-knowledge. Luckily, these are not traits; they are skills that can be learned! These pro tips from successful writers will help you see your work through from start to finish. Getting Ready to Write Sometimes, just sitting down to work is the biggest obstacle! Whether it’s challenging yourself with a deadline, setting aside time for writing, or avoiding distractions, writers need to engage self-discipline to create the opportunity to be creative. Deadlines Are Your Friends Deadlines can be a blessing in disguise. They propel you through the more difficult stages of your process, helping that end goal to stay within view. Self-motivated projects are understandably challenging to complete- so create deadlines for yourself. Essay contests and job applications can help provide motivating deadlines for a writer. While some creative writers may find adrenaline to be a helpful motivational tool, with academic or business writing, it is more likely to result in sloppy work. Your arguments will be stronger and your vocabulary richer if you avoid the stress of a rapidly approaching end-date. By getting a head start, you won’t short change the vital editing process, and you won’t be thrown off course if setbacks occur. Limit Distractions Short story writer Nathan Englander advises, â€Å"If you want to get work done, you’ve got to learn to unplug.† When you hit roadblocks in your work, it can feel like a relief to distract yourself by messaging a friend. However, studies prove that productivity skyrockets when personal phones are kept out of sight, or at least switched to â€Å"airplane mode.† For many writers, working at home is the easiest way to avoid noise and distractions. However, if you have children or pets, messy areas might become an additional distraction (and a temptation to procrastinate). It can be hard to focus when surrounded by piles of dirty laundry. Use Your Most Productive Hours The best time to write varies from writer to writer. Often, finding your ideal writing window will depend on how you work best. If you require silence to focus, early morning is a great choice (before anyone has the chance to distract you). Writers Toni Morrison, Ernest Hemingway, and Haruki Murakami famously preferred the early hours for their efforts. One advantage of morning writing is a sense of accomplishment that can carry you throughout the day. You’ve made progress; now you can relax without writing looming all afternoon. Use the time for editing, administrative tasks, or research, and focus on writing during your most fruitful hours. Create Your Optimal Environment Not every writer prefers absolute silence or solitude. The presence of others can also be inspiring and comforting. This helps explain the rise in popularity of co-working spaces, which are popping up all over campuses and urban centers. The library can also be a pleasant respite from the busy atmosphere of a coffee shop. Regardless of where you work, noise-cancelling earphones can help shut out the chatter. Just be sure to pick music that inspires you! Up-tempo instrumental music can keep you from succumbing to boredom and fatigue. Finally: Forget The Rules! It can be challenging to stick to a regular writing routine with the stresses of our daily lives. It’s important not to fret over less-than-ideal circumstances if you can’t change them. As E.B. White put it, â€Å"A writer who waits for ideal conditions under which to work will die without putting a word on paper.† It’s also helpful to remember that even the best writers don’t always feel like sitting down to work. As Henry Miller once said, â€Å"write according to program and not according to mood.† Now That You’ve Started Congratulations: you’re off! These simple techniques will help you stay focused while improving your results. Set Short-Term Goals Short-term goalposts can help you drive towards the finish line. You choose the writing interval, which may vary from project to project. When writing a thesis, for example, it’s easy to feel overwhelmed by such a seemingly monumental task. However, when you break that task up into manageable increments, anything is possible! Just take it one step at a time. Whether it’s a half hour or an hour, all you need to worry about it keeping your head down until the buzzer sounds. Be wary of using your phone as a timer, since this may tempt you to use it as a distraction. Leave Yourself Somewhere to Start If you don’t know where to start the next day, sitting down to write can seem impossibly daunting. One oft-repeated piece of advice is to stop writing for the day (or the session) in the middle of a sentence or paragraph. If you provide yourself with a launching pad, you’ll start work focused and inspired, and you’ll get the satisfaction of â€Å"finishing† something early in the session. If you’re working from an outline, know exactly where you’ll begin the next day before signing off, to fend off that dreaded fear of the blank page. Move Your Body Sometimes, when a section is particularly frustrating, a walk or jog can be just what you need. Exercise can clear your head and get you back on track, refreshed. It’s hard sitting at a desk for hours on end! If you’ve set your timer and worked for your allotted time, use your break period to get moving. A walk around the block, a dip in the pool, or a few jumping jacks can be enough to get you energized. Kurt Vonnegut once reported that he broke up his writing with push-ups and sit-ups to fend off lethargy. Editing And Rewriting This can sometimes seem like the toughest part of writing, but it is one of the most critical steps for doing good work. Neil Gaiman described revision as â€Å"a process of making it look like you knew what you were doing all along.† Get Feedback Go to one or two trusted friends, but don’t go to ten. The further along you are in your career, the more likely you are to have respectful, trusting relationships with other writers. Don’t be afraid to reach out, but avoid the temptation to ask everyone for their â€Å"take† on your work. Too many opinions can be counter-productive, particularly if the views are from individuals with a limited understanding of your topic. If you don’t have anyone you feel comfortable showing your work, or if you’re pressed for time, consulting a professional writing service can be invaluable. Know When To Delete Editing the same passages repeatedly can be time-consuming and frustrating. If your wording isn’t creating the desired effect, or if you’re finding it too difficult to make a succinct point, radical surgery may be required. Delete the problematic passage and start over. If it doesn’t work, you can always revert to an earlier version history; but often the solution will become apparent to you once you have a clean slate. Knowing When To Walk Away Remember: your work will never be perfect. Be satisfied knowing that you did the best you could. If you set yourself up for success with your writing habits, you can avoid fretting over sections that might have improved with more time. No writer has all the time they want, and we do the best with what we have. While you may eventually look back on your work and notice small errors that you missed, that’s simply the nature of the process. Whether you’re writing a thesis, a research paper or a college admissions essay, know that writers all over the world struggle with the same issues you do. While there’s no â€Å"easy† way to write, establishing good writing habits will set you apart from the crowd. For expert editing and writing services, call 1 (800) 573-0840 (toll-free) to speak with a professional paper writer. With offices in Toronto, Calgary and Vancouver, can help make sure great habits result in great writing.

Global climate change is invetable Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Global climate change is invetable - Essay Example Some people are of the opinion that climate change has occurred because of man’s activities that have interfered with nature. Others argue that the climate changes are natural cycles that occur after certain periods, and they have nothing to do with human activities. The essay will focus on both sides of the opposing viewpoints. It will examine why there is global warming and also its causes. The essay will also focus on the views against global warming. Because global temperature changes occurred mostly during the rapid industrial period, global warming is real, and its effects are tremendous. The presence of greenhouse gases causes global warming. A certain percentage of global warming occurs naturally because of greenhouse gases present in the atmosphere. Such naturally present greenhouse gases trap radiation within the atmosphere, causing a rise in temperature and changes in climatic patterns. The rise due to such natural causes is usually minimal and negligible. However, noticeable changes in global climatic patterns occur due to the heightened concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (Gulledge, 2012, 6). The increase in concentration of greenhouse gases is attributed to increased industrial activities since the start of 20th century. The increase in concentration implies that more radiation will be trapped in the atmosphere. Industrial activities, which lead to increased carbon emission into the atmosphere, have risen throughout the 20th and 21st centuries causing global warming. For instance, the highest warming has occurred during the last decade with gl obal average temperature rising by 0.51o C relative to 1950s to 1980s (Huang, Wang, Luo, Zhao & Wen, 2012, 39). Model simulations of the greenhouse effect have also indicated that increased greenhouse gases cause global warming. When global average temperature variations are reproduced in model

Personality, Learning, and Communication Styles Term Paper

Personality, Learning, and Communication Styles - Term Paper Example Allport (cited in Monte, 1995) ordered various traits in three hierarchical levels, namely, cardinal trait, central trait and secondary trait. The three hierarchical levels are explained as follows: Cardinal traits: Cardinal traits are referred to certain specific traits which shape and have a dominating effect on the manners of an individual. Such traits have been placed by the author at the highest level of the hierarchy and are referred as master traits for controlling personality of an individual. However, it is noteworthy that such traits are rare and extreme and can have an impact so strong that it may completely define an individual’s life. Examples of cardinal traits can be greed, altruism and ambition. Central traits: The central traits occupy the second highest level in the trait hierarchy defined by Allport. These characteristics are found in different persons in varying quantity. These traits are referred as common building blocks that have major impact on an individual’s behaviour. Examples of central traits can be honesty, dedication, sensitivity and generosity. Secondary traits: The secondary traits are placed at the lowest level of the hierarchy and are exhibited under specific circumstances. Secondary traits are largely individualistic with respect to its features. These traits are activated by certain stimuli and can explain the rationale behind certain behavior of an individual that is different from the person’s other behaviors. Preference and attitude can be considered as secondary traits (Monte, 1995; Kasschau, 1985). The term learning style indicates towards personal preference of an individual towards gaining knowledge and learning. There are three prominent learning styles that are largely implemented in organizational framework: adult learning theory, visual, auditory and kinesthetic (VAK) learning style model and Kolb’s experiential learning theory and styles. The paper

Owning a car when one turns 16 Essay Example for Free

Owning a car when one turns 16 Essay There are many advantages and disadvantages to owning a vehicle. A life style change can occur or an empty wallet or purse I can almost expect someone will have when they first start driving a vehicle of their own. This impact in ones life can not only change their life style and their money situation but also there grades, sports, social life, and most of all their physical health. These advantages and disadvantages can be for the better but most of all the worst. In my opinion, owning a vehicle at a young age develops a good source of financial planning, responsibility, and awareness of what can happen to them if they become an uncontrolled driver. Next, with the purchase of a car there can be a life style change and also a huge financial decrease. If one owns a car, especially a teenager, they become cocky and act like a hot shot because they have a vehicle. With this problem a teen may start to develop a new driving style. They will drive with only one arm and will constantly change the CD player to different compact discs and radio station. With having them do this they will increase the chances of not paying attention to the rode and will cause an accident. So, a driver needs to keep their eyes on the rode to not only protect to their own life but the lives of others. Then, the new driver has already developed the bad habits of driving and this will lead them into a having bad grades, missing practices for sports, and lose a social life. The bad grades can come from driving too much, but if one drives, they will need a job. A job is where a loss in a social life comes together. If they are working to drive, they will not have enough time to spend with their friends. Now that they are trying to find time out of work to drive, hang out with friends, and play sports. Sports are after school each day. I dont expect a driver to play sports all week and only work two days and still have enough money to pay for their vehicle. Finally, the most difficult sacrifice to give up is their physical health being tampered with. By working all the time and constantly trying to join sports and hang out with friends this will affect their health. Where is their time to sleep? One will be doing it all but; they do need time to sleep. All of these advantages and disadvantages will change their entire  life style. I believe owning a vehicle will do that but in some cases a change is a good thing so there is always something to look out for. Change can be good but the time will keep ticking away. So, do what makes one happy and make it how you want it.

Computer Hackers :: Essays Papers

Computer Hackers The meaning of Hacker is one who accesses a computer which is supposably not able to be accessed to non authorised people of the community. Hackers may use any type of system to access this information depending on what they intend on doing in the system. Methods Hackers may use a variety of ways to hack into a system. First if the hacker is experienced and smart the hacker will use telnet to access a shell on another machine so that the risk of getting caught is lower than doing it using their own system. Ways in which the hacker will break into the system are: 1) Guess/cracking passwords. This is where the hacker takes guesses at the password or has a crack program to crack the password protecting the system. 2) Finding back doors is another way in which the hacker may get access to the system. This is where the hacker tries to find flaws in the system they are trying to enter. 3) One other way in which a hacker may try to get into a system is by using a program called a WORM. This program is specially programmed to suit the need of the user. This programme continually tries to connect to a machine at over 100 times a second until eventually the system lets in and the worm executes its program. The program could be anything from getting password files to deleting files depending on what it has been programmed to do. Protection The only way that you or a company can stop a Hacker is by not having your computer connected to the net. This is the only sure fire way in which you can stop a hacker entering your system. This is mainly because hackers use a phone line to access the system. If it is possible for one person to access the system then it is possible for a hacker to gain access to the system. One of the main problems is that major companies need to be networked and accessible over the net so that employees can do overdue work or so that people can look up things on that company. Also major companies network their offices so that they can access data from different positions. One way which is used to try to prevent hackers gaining access is a program used by companies called a Firewall. Computer Hackers :: Essays Papers Computer Hackers The meaning of Hacker is one who accesses a computer which is supposably not able to be accessed to non authorised people of the community. Hackers may use any type of system to access this information depending on what they intend on doing in the system. Methods Hackers may use a variety of ways to hack into a system. First if the hacker is experienced and smart the hacker will use telnet to access a shell on another machine so that the risk of getting caught is lower than doing it using their own system. Ways in which the hacker will break into the system are: 1) Guess/cracking passwords. This is where the hacker takes guesses at the password or has a crack program to crack the password protecting the system. 2) Finding back doors is another way in which the hacker may get access to the system. This is where the hacker tries to find flaws in the system they are trying to enter. 3) One other way in which a hacker may try to get into a system is by using a program called a WORM. This program is specially programmed to suit the need of the user. This programme continually tries to connect to a machine at over 100 times a second until eventually the system lets in and the worm executes its program. The program could be anything from getting password files to deleting files depending on what it has been programmed to do. Protection The only way that you or a company can stop a Hacker is by not having your computer connected to the net. This is the only sure fire way in which you can stop a hacker entering your system. This is mainly because hackers use a phone line to access the system. If it is possible for one person to access the system then it is possible for a hacker to gain access to the system. One of the main problems is that major companies need to be networked and accessible over the net so that employees can do overdue work or so that people can look up things on that company. Also major companies network their offices so that they can access data from different positions. One way which is used to try to prevent hackers gaining access is a program used by companies called a Firewall.

History of Marriage Essay

Marriage is a social institution recognized by custom and law. It is a relation that exists between one or more men to one or more women. Custom or law gives recognitions of the duties and rights of the parties involved in such an institution. The union may result to children being born in it. In general, the societal expectation is one where there is sexual gratification between a husband and wife. There are legal issues that may arise as a result of adultery, which may force one partner to dissolve the marriage. This relation is at some point regarded as an economic institution in which a husband is fully responsible for the needs of the wife and children. With the current women empowerment in the society they are also able to provide for their families. A father has a general control and power over his family but for the children his powers are for a limited time. This comes as a result of the need for children to practice decision making and show responsibility especially at adulthood. Marriage is in accordance to the laid down custom or law and the consent of each parties involved must be considered. Parents for example may ask for a bride price and after this is settled a marriage takes place. These are important steps especially where the conditions stipulated by custom or by law are complied with. The origin of marriage is seen to be a habitual practice from the medieval period. A man and woman would live together, have sexual relations and from this union children would come forth. The father would play their role as a protector and supporter of his family while his wife nurses and cares for the family. As time passed it was accepted by custom and by law and it became legal social institution. Marriage is therefore seen to be an intimate relationship which the society, the government and religion recognizes. Marriage has many forms but the major one constitutes a man and a woman. Marriage is the basis of a family unit in which procreation takes place. Through a marriage setup children can grown, be protected and shown love through provision of food, shelter, clothing, education among others. There are a variety of intentions that one has in mind while planning to enter into marriage. Some of the major reasons may include need for legal stability, social and/or economic stability. Through marriage, there is a provider, protector and the union is legally bound. Marriage can be witnessed in a wedding celebration and this marks the beginning of individual obligation to each other and to the society at large. There have been changes in the understanding and approach of marriage from the older days. In the United States marriage for example was a consideration of status as well as an oversight on the future economic stability and prosperity of the person. It was therefore an economic arrangement in which one would choose their potential spouse and so they would plan to marry . Marriage ceremonies between same sexes were done in the 5th-14th centuries by the Roman Catholic Church. Many issues about marriage caught the interest of many leaders and Pope Alexander II in 1975, prohibited marriages between couples who were closely related and especially with no more than 6 cousins related to a person. In the 16th century, only with the permission of local political authorities, servants and day laborers would be free to marry in Bavaria and Austria. In1921 this order was fully abolished. Public wife selling was witnessed in the 1960s-1870s where a divorced wife was tied with a rope around her neck and sold in public. Until 1686, marriage was rather a civil ceremony for the puritans in Massachusetts Bay. In the British colonies, there was no penalty given for interracial marriages until 1662 when Virginia doubled fornication fines for interracial couples. Maryland banned interracial marriages in 1664 and subsequently, in 1750 interracial marriages had been outlawed in all southern colonies. Married women, until mid 19th century, had no legal standing under the English common law in all American states. It was until 1848 that women had the right to own property while married, through the Married Women Act. http://www. lulu. com/content/247174 At the age of 10 years, consent for sexual intercourse was allowed in most American states while in Delaware it was at the age of 7 years only. With parental consent young boys of 14 and girls of 12 would marry, as late as 1930. In 1940, married women could not make legal contract in twelve states. Anti-Miscegenation laws were declared unconstitutional in Virginia and other states such as Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Oklahoma, and Texas among others. Fourteen states had in the fifteen years prior to the decision, repealed their anti miscegenation laws. This included Arizona, Colorado, Maryland, Nevada, and Oregon among others. Ten states had by 1990, outlawed rape in marriage. This was after New York outlawed rape in marriage in 1978. Rape in marriage was seen as a crime in thirty-six states and this was only in certain circumstances. It was surprising that in four states, rape in marriage was never a crime. Marriage has had lots of controversies but the initial union in the religious world was the social union that benefited the society. It is seen as the union of one man and one woman blessed and united by a religious leader as seen in Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Buddhists and Hindu. The privileges enjoyed in marriages are of benefit while particular concerns were raised on homosexual couples. The commitment of traditional couples which constituted a man and woman could be seen as that of same-sex couples and so they have continued to fight for their rights and the legalization of their marriage. The sacred value of marriage should not be changed despite the fact that advocates are aggressive on the issue that it should be redefined to suit gay marriage. When the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court made a ruling in 2004, and said that civil union was not enough, this raised national debate. A number of people wanted the definition of one man-to- one woman to stand and others wanted it to separate same-sex institutions, with others against it. In 2004, California and New York mayors were authorizing same sex marriages while defying law and these marriages were said not to be legally binding. Nancy 2001) http://www. lulu. com/content/247174 In 1619, Virginia enacted a law in which if a bond married a Negro, Mulatto or Indian, they would be banished in the woods so that they are cast out of the colony. Later on, in 1724, there was introduction Louisiana after the slaves were freed. Laws that were known as black codes were used to control and even forbid marriages constituted by slaves while the slave master was not consented. In 1769, the English common law showed that husband and wife were one. A constitution was written in 1787 and was adopted the following year. It was effective in 1789 and replaced the articles of federation, which was the government document of the USA. It remains to be the basic law of central government. In 1839, Mississippi granted the women a right to hold, with their respective husband’s permission, property in their own name. This saw many states legalizing this grant to women so that they would have control over property and earnings. This was in 1900. In the Missouri vs. Celia case of 1855, the case was used to show that enslaved women had no right or legal recourse if they were raped by their masters. This meant that black women had no right to defend themselves after an act of rape by the master. When the Mississippi black code was passed, it was an attempt to control slaves and ensure social inequality. This prohibited blacks, in 1865, from marrying whites and in this case, it was punishable as was seen through life imprisonment. http://www. lulu. com/content/247174 More was to come and in the United States, an immigration act of 1917 banned immigration of Asians and those with abnormal sexual instincts and until 1990, lesbians and gay immigrants were excluded from coming into the United States. (Nancy 2001) In a case of New York v. Sanger, doctors would advice married couples on use of birth control pills for health purposes. The law was still enforced but was overturned in 1965 on all state laws that prohibited the use of contraceptives. In 1948, in Perez v Sharp case, there was a ban on interracial marriage in the California Supreme Court. This was the first state high court to declare it unconstitutional but later on in 1967; the U. S Supreme Court declared that there was freedom to marry allowing for interracial marriages on all Americans. This was evidenced in the case of Loving v. Virginia. The immigration act in 1965 admitted different races and nationalities and emphasized on family reunification with great concern. The act defined a family to be strictly on hetero sexual and nuclear ties and banned on lesbian and gay deviates. In 1969, California adopted a divorce law that allowed divorce by mutual consent and especially where one party simply wants it. The major challenge in this was that one party can refuse to sign the separation agreement. In 1981, there was an over turn of events when the states laws described a husband as a head and master and having control of property which is jointly owned with his wife. Nancy 2001) . http://family. jrank. org/pages/1118/Marriage-Ceremonies. html Articles were published and they advocated for legalization of same-sex couples and this was especially because these authors were gay and wanted to pursue their demand. In 1990, the congress repealed ban on gay and lesbian immigration. Homosexuals were disqualified as foreigners and were not allowed to come in to the United States. It was in 1993 that Hawaii Supreme Court said that the ban on same-sex couples from marrying must be justified and in 1998, it was amended to allow strict marriage to men and women only . In 1994, gays and lesbians sought to be part of the humanitarian law as a social group rather than an immigration group. A Person Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act explicitly promoted marriage and formation of heterosexual families. The federal law supported two parent families and in the same year, 1996, the Defense of Marriage Act defined marriage as exclusively between one man and a woman. It was evident that this act did not recognize same sex marriage at all. In 1998, there was a covenant marriage legislation in which couples promised to stay together for life and that they would denounce the no-default divorce. In the same year, May 1998, Alaska ruled that it was a fundamental right to choose a marital partner. The following year, the Vermont Supreme Court allowed for same-sex marriage to occur and that they have all rights and benefits of marriage but no marriage licenses. A governor in Oklahoma in March 2000 announced a $10 million plan that encouraged marriage than divorce and in 2001 gay and lesbian couples in Massachusetts filed law suits seeking a right to marry. This followed with other New Jersey lesbian and gay couples suing the state court for denial of their right to marry. In 2003, the US Supreme Court struck down the remaining anti-gay sodomy laws which were in Texas and in other states. http://family. jrank. org/pages/1118/Marriage-Ceremonies. html In 2003-2004, the Federal Marriage Amendment was proposed but was defeated in congress. The amendment ought to have denied marriage rights to same-sex couples by indicating that marriage would only exist between a man and a woman. The divorce rate in 1980 was 22. 6% per 1000 married women and currently it is rated at 17. 7 percent.  Other observations and statistics show that the rate of marriage has declined from 76. 5 to 39. 9 percent per 1000 unmarried women. This has been a 50 percent drop and it is attributed to cohabitation rather than marriage. These posses a great risk on the children as it affects the family stability. Breakup rates for cohabitating couples are twice as that of married couples and in 40% of such couples children are born in this rather unstable and shaky relationship. The United States is found to have the weakest families in the western world. This is attributed to the high divorce rates as well as the increase in solo parenting. The divorce rate has generally been going up more recently with about 20 divorces for every 1000 women over the age of 15. (Nancy 2001) The divorces rate has had significant factors that have led to the rise in the United States. One of them has been that men and women are economically stable and so there is less need for each other in terms of economical survival. The rate has also been on the higher side because of birth control programs that allow men and women to separate sexual activity from bearing children.

Letter Format

This letter illustrates the use of the full-block style. Because of the efficiency with which this letter can be keyboarded, its use is growing in popularity. (blank line between paragraphs)Some persons object to this letter style because everything is at the left margin; they believe that the date and closing lines should be centered or started at the center of the page. Others would like to indent the first line of each paragraph. 80th variations are acceptable; the letter style is known as modified block style. Notice that the â€Å"open† style of punctuation is used in this letter; there are no marks of punctuation after the salutation (greeting) or complimentary close.However, it is acceptable, regardless of the letter style, to use â€Å"mixed† punctuation, which requires a colon (:) after the salutation and a comma after the complimentary close. Finally, notice how your title is shown after your name on the first line of the inside address. However, my title is o n the next line in the closing. We try to equalize the line length by doing so. A comma is required if you place the title on the same line as the person's name. (blank line before complimentary close) Sincerely (three blank lines before typed signature)

Robert Boyle essays

Robert Boyle essays Robert Boyle was born in Ireland in the county of Waterford in the city of Lismore on the 25th of January 1627. His father Richard Boyle, Earl of Cork, had left England in 1588. Roberts mother, Catherine Fenton Boyle, was Richards second wife. Robert was the seventh son. His parents had a total of fifteen children. At the age of twelve Roberts father sent him on a tour of Europe eventually leading him to Geneva. There he began to study, with a private tutor, mathematics and ... he grew very well acquainted with the most useful part of arithmetic, geometry, with its subordinates, the doctrine of the sphere, that of the globe, and fortification. There had been a civil war going on in England at the time. When the war had finished Cromwell granted Irish lands to the English colonists. As a result of this, Richard became a very rich man. He then no longer had a need for a source of income and was able to devote both himself and his time to science. He contributed to physics and chemistry. His biggest contribution being Boyles Law, which relates volume and pressure in a gas. The law describes an ideal gas. This law can be found in the appendix written to Boyles work New Experiments Physio Mechanical, Touching the Springs of the Air and its Effects. Using a vacuum he discovered that sound did not travel in a vacuum, he proved that fire required air to burn, and he tested airs elastic properties. Robert published his findings through the Royal Society, of which he was a founding fellow. He aimed towards establishing chemistry as a mathematical science. He argued a mechanistic theory of matter. Its complex look is actually just simple mathematical laws applied to simple fundamental particles. In 1670, Boyle had a stroke. He slowly regained his health and continued to conduct research and experiment. In 1680 he declined the title of Pre ...

How the Phoenicians Settled Carthage

How the Phoenicians Settled Carthage Phoenicians from Tyre (Lebanon) founded Carthage, an ancient city-state in the area that is modern Tunisia. Carthage became a major economic and political power in the Mediterranean fighting over territory in Sicily with the Greeks and Romans. Eventually, Carthage fell to the Romans, but it took three wars. The Romans destroyed Carthage at the end of the Third Punic War, but then rebuilt it as a new Carthage. Carthage and the Phoenicians Although Alpha and Beta are Greek letters that give us our word alphabet, the alphabet itself comes from the Phoenicians, at least conventionally. Greek myth and legend credit the dragon-teeth-sowing Phoenician Cadmus as not only founding the Boeotian Greek city of Thebes but bringing the letters with him. The 22-letter abecedary of the Phoenicians contained only consonants, some of which had no equivalent in Greek. So the Greeks substituted their vowels for the unused letters. Some say that without the vowels, it was not an alphabet. If vowels arent required, Egypt can also make a claim for the earliest alphabet. Were this the only contribution of the Phoenicians, their place in history would be assured, but they did more. So much, it seems as though jealousy prompted the Romans to set out to annihilate them in 146 B.C.  when they razed Carthage and were rumored to have salted its earth. The Phoenicians are also credited with: Inventing glass.The bireme (two tiers of oars) galley.The luxurious purple dye is known as Tyrian.Circumnavigating Africa.Navigating by the stars. The Phoenicians were merchants who developed an extensive empire almost as a by-product of their quality merchandise and trading routes. They are believed to have gone as far as England to buy Cornish tin, but they started in Tyre, in an area now part of Lebanon, and expanded. By the time the Greeks were colonizing Syracuse and the rest of Sicily, the Phoenicians were already (9th century B.C.) a major power in the middle of the Mediterranean. The principal city of the Phoenicians, Carthage, was located near modern Tunis, on a promontory on the Northern Coast of Africa. It was a prime spot for access to all areas of the known world. The Legend of Carthage After the brother of Dido (famed for her role in Vergils Aeneid) killed her husband, Queen Dido fled her palace home in Tyre to settle in Carthage, North Africa, where she sought to buy land for her new settlement. Coming from a nation of merchants she cleverly asked to buy an area of land that would fit within an ox hide. The local inhabitants thought she was a fool, but she got the last laugh when she cut the oxhide (byrsa) into strips to enclose a large area, with the sea coast acting as one border. Dido was the queen of this new community. Later, Aeneas, on his route from Troy to Latium, stopped in Carthage where he had an affair with the queen. When she found that he had abandoned her, Dido committed suicide, but not before cursing Aeneas and his descendants. Her story is an important part of Vergils Aeneid and supplies a motive for the hostility between the Romans and Carthage. At length, in dead of night, the ghost appearsOf her unhappy lord: the specter stares,And, with erected eyes, his bloody bosom bares.The cruel altars and his fate he tells,And the dire secret of his house reveals,Then warns the widow, with her household gods,To seek a refuge in remote abodes.Last, to support her in so long a way,He shows her where his hidden treasure lay.Admonishd thus, and seizd with mortal fright,The queen provides companions of her flight:They meet, and all combine to leave the state,Who hate the tyrant, or who fear his hate....At last they landed, where from far your eyesMay view the turrets of new Carthage rise;There bought a space of ground, which (Byrsa calld,From the bulls hide) they first inclosd, and walld.Translation from (www.uoregon.edu/~joelja/aeneid.html) of Vergils Aeneid Book I Vital Differences of the People of Carthage The people of Carthage seem more primitive compared to modern sensibilities than the Romans or Greeks for one main reason: They are said to have sacrificed humans, babies, and toddlers (possibly their first born to ensure fertility). There is controversy over this. Its hard to prove one way or the other since millennia-old human remains dont easily tell whether the person was sacrificed or died some other way. Unlike the Romans of their time, the leaders of Carthage hired mercenary soldiers and had a capable navy. They were extremely adept at trade, a fact that allowed them to rebuild a profitable economy even after the setbacks of military defeat during the Punic Wars, which included  a yearly tribute to Rome of almost 10 tons of silver. Such wealth allowed them to have paved streets and multi-story homes, compared with which proud Rome looked shabby. Source North African News Letter 1, by John H. Humphrey. American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 82, No. 4 (Autumn, 1978), pp. 511-520

Levis_ad_2010 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Levis_ad_2010 - Essay Example arity in boot sizes (size 29) indicate that even if there are similarities in sizes of footwear, women still have differences in shapes and curves where jeans should be custom made and tailored to fit these body shapes. As such, Levi’s emphasizes that they could be relied to meet this particular need of these women. The argument that was presented actually emphasized that jeans should fit women, despite their differences; and not be satisfied with trying to fit in whatever jeans that are available (even if ill-fitted to one’s shape and size). The message was clearly and explicitly embodied in the textual representation of the advertisement, to wit: â€Å"that we should be able to go into stores and find jeans that fit us instead of having to fit into the jeans† (Levis Ad 1). To support this particular evidence, the promoters used rhetorical appeals through the narrative discourse. Initially, the advertisement asserted that â€Å"all asses were not created equal† (Levis Ad 1), which is a rational and logical contention. To support this, the advertisement disclosed that there are girls of different shapes and sizes. It added emotional appeal through using adjectives such as asserting that â€Å"hotness comes in all shapes and sizes†¦(and) deserves jeans that make her curves look like a national treasure† (Levis Ad 1). The credibility of the advertisement is deemed supported by the fact that the manufacturer of the jeans is Levi’s, which has been known to manufacture high quality jeans through the years. The brand alone, speaks of high quality and that the target clientele had been made aware of its ability to manufacture reliable, dependable, and high quality jeans through time. I found the argument and evidence equally persuasive; due to the presentation of rhetorical appeals in the textual discourse; as well as in providing visual illustrations of women where jeans of different styles were shown to fit different shapes and sizes. As such, through the use of

Non profit Organization in Anne Arundel County Research Paper

Non profit Organization in Anne Arundel County - Research Paper Example Although the present population diversity of Anne Arundel County (29.8%) is below state average (39.2%) but it has gained momentum (18.6%) since 2000. The median age for household (36.0%) is at par with the national average (36.4%). (2000, Census). As per 2005 American Community Survey data, the County was having 87003 married couples with children and 24525 single-parent households (5795 men, 18730 women). Teenage suicides have increased 8 percent over the previous year. The number of single parents has increased to 12.9 million. Postpartum episodes are estimated to affect 15 percent to 20 percent of mothers. These are astounding statistics having adverse implications. As per 2000 census, out of 2,69,772 employments, 7.8 percent were in manufacturing, 6.4 percent in transportation/ communication, 22.2 percent whole sale / retail trade, 4.5 percent in finance / income / real estate, 24.6 percent in services, 27.8 percent in Govt. and rest 6.7 percent in other sectors. However, out of 71.1 percent of total labor force above age 16 years 68.1 percent are in civil and only 3.0 percent are in army. Out of the total civilian labor force of 2,58,331, only 66.0 percent are employed and rest 2.1 percent unemployed. The median house hold income of 61,768 recorded a gain of 36.8 percent over 1990 census which was 47.09 percent higher than the nation average. The per capita income was 24,335 with 5.1 percent of the house hold "Below Poverty Line". Food stamps are available to families with income up to 130 percent of the Federal Poverty Level (FPL), about $19,500 for a family of three. House hold status: Out of total 1,86,937 housing units, 23.4 percent are occupied by renters with median rent of $700 which was much higher than state ($571) and national ($469) average. The median purchase price for home has also been fixed at $212,816. An increase of 19.8 percent of total households of 1,78,670 over 1990 was marked during last decennial. The median year householder moved in (1998) exceeded the median year structure built (1973). The rent shared of 24 percent of household revenue was disproportionate to the earnings. Income needed to qualify for purchase of house (MPDU) has been fixed to $35,000 or above a year and $20,000 or above a year to rent. This is because house prices normally require at least this amount of income to make the payment requirements. The minimum income required for renting a house with 2 bed rooms varies between $ 51,000- $58,000. As per SFY 2003, 429 individuals and 751 homeless families with children were detected. There is almost an even spilt between homeless men and women, which would represent 52 and 48 percent of the homeless population, respectively and majority are below 30.Besides this, 5835 people were in state prisons, 4964 in military barracks, 688 un group homes, 285 in college dormitories, 234 in mental rehabilitation centre, 22 in religious group quarters, 5 in agriculture workers' dormitories and so on. Disabilities: The count required affordable housing and supportive services to the developmentally disabled. An estimated 67,713 residents in the county are

The Legendary Abolitionist And Fictional Lady Essay

The Legendary Abolitionist And Fictional Lady - Essay Example More than eighty years later, Francie Coffin is the protagonist of Daddy was a number runner by Louise Meriwether. Set in the Depression-era ghettos of Harlem in the 1930’s, Francie is a young (12 years old) girl who helps her father in his business, numbers running. Prior to the state lotteries, the gangsters had one going and the runners picked up the bets from the customers. Meanwhile, the novel explores every facet of gritty New York street life. She is trying her best in school and gets brilliant marks but outside of its comfortable environments, she has to deal with such horrible realities as the perverted old men who try to molest her and bullies and street gangs who abuse her. All around Francie is abject poverty and brave and proud but beaten people. Finally, her family is forced to go on relief. In the novel, one sentence is almost a mirror of modern times when Francie’s mother tells her â€Å"Elizabeth's coming back home today with her kids and Robert. Their furniture got put out on the street." Elizabeth was her sister. Yet she and Douglass share one thing in common, their fierce determination that no matter what their circumstances, their lives would eventually be much better. For example, Douglass made a New Year’s Resolution in 1836 that he would be a free man that year. It actually took another two years but the point is his vow came true for him due to his willpower. As he said, â€Å"I could see no reason why I should, at the end of each week, pour the reward of my toil into the purse of my master†.... Prior to the state lotteries, the gangsters had one going and the runners picked up the bets from the customers. Meanwhile the novel explores every facet of gritty New York street life. She is trying her best in school and gets brilliant marks but outside of its comfortable environments, she has to deal with such horrible realities as the perverted old men who try to molest her and bullies and street gangs who abuse her. All around Francie is abject poverty and brave and proud but beaten people. Finally, her family is forced to go on relief (welfare). In the novel one sentence is almost a mirror of modern times when Francie’s mother tells her â€Å"Elizabeth's coming back home today with her kids and Robert. Their furniture got put out in the street." Elizabeth was her sister (Meriwether). Yet she and Douglass share one thing in common, their fierce determination that no matter what their circumstances, their lives would eventually be much better. For example, Douglass made a New Year’s Resolution in 1836 that he would be a free man that year. It actually took another two years but the point is his vow came true for him due to his willpower. As he said, â€Å"I could see no reason why I should, at the end of each week, pour the reward of my toil into the purse of my master† (Douglass II). Likewise, Francie Coffin makes a vow to never pickled herring again, for evidently that was one of the staples of relief handouts. Whether she made good on her promise was never revealed, for the novel ended only a year later with her father departing. WORKS CITED Douglass, Frederick, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglas, An American Slave†, Web, November 27, 2012.

Components Of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

Components Of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) occurs in children, adolescents, and adults. OCD is an anxiety disorder characterized by uncontrollable, unwanted thoughts and repetitive, ritualized behaviors (American Psychiatric Association [DSM-IV-TR], 2000). The two main component of OCD are obsession and compulsion. Individuals with obsessions often attempt to ease the stress that the obsessions cause through compulsions (Shih, Belmonte, Zandi, 2004). Types of OCD Obsessions Aggressive/ catastrophic Religious Sexual Contamination Somatic Compulsions Hoarding Counting Confessing/ asking Ordering/arranging Washing In a developmental study conducted by Geller and his colleagues (2001), OCD in childhood and adolescence was male preponderant and associated with a higher frequency of aggression/catastrophe obsessions, hoarding and saving compulsions, multiple obsessions and compulsions, and poor insight compared with adult OCD. Sexual and religious obsessions were selectively more prevalent in adolescents compared with either children or adults. Children with OCD had higher rates of Tourettes disorder and separation anxiety disorder than older age groups, but mood disorders were similarly high in both adolescents and adults with OCD. Adults with OCD also had higher rates of substance use and eating disorders than either children or adolescents. This study indicated that age specific correlates with different types of OCD. DSM Diagnosis Criteria of OCD (DSM-IV-TR, 2000) A. The Person Exhibits Either Obsessions or Compulsions Obsessions are indicated by the following: The person has recurrent and persistent thoughts, impulses, or images that are experienced, at some time during the disturbance, as intrusive and inappropriate and that cause marked anxiety or distress The thoughts, impulses, or images are not simply excessive worries about real-life problems The person attempts to ignore or suppress such thoughts, impulses, or images or to neutralize them with some other thought or action The person recognizes that the obsessional thoughts, impulses, or images are a product of his or her own mind (not imposed from without as in thought insertion) Compulsions are indicated by the following: The person has repetitive behaviors (eg, hand washing, ordering, checking) or mental acts (eg, praying, counting, repeating words silently) that the person feels driven to perform in response to an obsession or according to rules that must be applied rigidly The behaviors or mental acts are aimed at preventing some dreaded event or situation; however, these behaviors or mental acts either are not connected in a realistic way with what they are designed to neutralize or prevent or are clearly excessive. B. At some point during the course of the disorder, the person has recognized that the obsessions or compulsions are excessive or unreasonable. (Note: this does not apply to children.) C. The obsessions or compulsions cause marked distress, are time consuming (take more than 1 hour a day), or significantly interfere with the persons normal routine, occupational/academic functioning, or usual social activities or relationships. D. If another axis I disorder is present, the content of the obsessions or compulsions is not restricted to it (e.g., preoccupation with drugs in the presence of a substance abuse disorder). E. The disturbance is not due to the direct physiologic effects of a substance (e.g., drug abuse, a medication) or a general medical condition. Sign and Symptoms of OCD Most people with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) have both obsessions and compulsions, but some people experience just one or the other (Help Guide, 2010). Common obsessive thoughts in OCD include (Help Guide, 2010): Fear of being contaminated by germs or dirt or contaminating others. Fear of causing harm to yourself or others. Intrusive sexually explicit or violent thoughts and images. Excessive focus on religious or moral ideas. Fear of losing or not having things you might need. Order and symmetry: the idea that everything must line up just right. Superstitions; excessive attention to something considered lucky or unlucky. Common compulsive behaviors in OCD include (Help Guide, 2010): Excessive double-checking of things, such as locks, appliances, and switches. Repeatedly checking in on loved ones to make sure theyre safe. Counting, tapping, repeating certain words, or doing other senseless things to reduce anxiety. Spending a lot of time washing or cleaning. Ordering, evening out, or arranging things just so. Praying excessively or engaging in rituals triggered by religious fear. Accumulating junk such as old newspapers, magazines, and empty food containers, or other things you dont have a use for. ETIOLOGY Biological Aspects of OCD Family and twin studies Family studies have demonstrated an increased prevalence of obsessive-compulsive disorder in the first degree relatives of patients as compared to controls (Hettema, Neale, Kendler, as cited inTaberner et al., 2009). Studies of OCD patients and their families have established a 10% prevalence of OCD in first degree relatives (Brynes, 2009). One American study (as cited in Anxiety Care, 2011) suggested that up to 30% of teenagers with OCD had a member of the immediate family with the problem or with obsessive symptoms. However, a two years study carried out by Black (2003, as cited in Waite Williams, 2009) demonstrated that although the children of parents with OCD were likely to go on to develop an emotional disorder, it was not particularly likely to be OCD. In studies of twins, there is a 63% concordance rate for OCD in identical twins (Brynes, 2009). Twin studies suggested a higher concordance rate in monozygotic as compared to dizygotic twins (Samuels Nestadt, 1997; Eley, Bolto n, OConnor, Perrin, Smith, Plomin, 2003). Because MZ twins share 100% of their genes and DZ twins share 50% of their genes on average, the concordance rate for a genetically influenced disorder is expected to be higher for MZ twins than for DZ twins (Shih, Belmonte, Zandi, 2004). Brain structure and chemistry Positron emission tomography (PET) studies measuring resting glucose metabolism have reported hyperactivity in the inferior frontal and anterior cingulate cortices, striatum, and thalamus in patients with OCD (Saxena et al., as cited in Busatto et al., 2001).Researcher believed that OCD may be developed by the abnormal metabolic activity in the orbitofrontal cortes, the anterior cingulate, and the caudate nucleus (Dejdar, 2002). The interaction between these different parts is called a cortico-basal ganglia network (Dejdar, 2002). Dejdar described that these cortico-basal ganglia interactions make up a neural system that is crucial in the acquisition of habits and also establishing a fixed routine of performing those habits, which in turn connected to the typical behaviors of OCD where people maintain certain obsessive habits and continue to perform those habits. Study by Lewin, Storch, Adkins, Murphy, Geffken (2005) supported the neurochemical etiology involving a functional disturbance in the frontal-limbic-basal ganglia system as well as thalamic and cortical neurostructural abnormalities. It is hypothesized that if cortical regions are dysfunctional in patients with OCD, then conscious mechanisms must be used to accomplish what would occur automatically in an unimpaired brain (Sturm, 2008). As a result, inappropriate or obsessive thoughts repeatedly intrude and conscious thought processes suppress them, facilitated by accompanying ritualistic behaviors (Neel, Stevens, Stewart, as cited in Sturm, 2008). There is a strong connection between basal ganglia and OCD. Several studies have implicated that basal ganglia is active during the learning or execution of sequential behavior (Brown, 1997; Graybiel, 1998). Graybiel (1998) explained that the chunking functions of the basal ganglia helps people to focus. Chunking refers to the organization of information into specific associated groups (Dolan DNA learning center, n.d.). This happened when the dopamine released in the basal ganglia system communicates with the brain areas in the prefrontal cortex to allow people to pay attention to critical tasks, ignoring distracting information (Dolan DNA learning center, n.d.). In an experiment by Graybiel, she hypothesized that the basal ganglia system helps the cortex to chunk learning into habits and routines to help the brain quickly access stored information. The experiment of Graybiel was done on training the rats on maze tasks and records the firing groups of neurons in the striatum as the r ats learn, forget, and then relearn the task. When the rats get used to the maze, lots of cells in motor striatum tend to fire at the beginning and the end of the run instead of the whole thing. This happened because the basal ganglia has chunked the behavior. The symptoms of OCD included repetitive, intrusive thoughts and compulsions which lead to ritualistic behaviors such as washing, counting and checking. These behaviors according to Graybiel involved sequential acts and they are performed as chunks, unitized and driven by the extraordinary imperative of urges and compulsions that the patient recognizes as abnormal and out of the persons control. As the result, OCD patients showed over focused attention to irrelevant stimuli. In OCD patients, an abnormal activation of the striatum has been observed. A clearer view is illustrated by a charity organization, Anxiety Care (2011). The organization explained that the thalamus is involved in sensory perception processes and caudate nucleus, a component within basal ganglia work to sort sensory information and filter thoughts. When these messages are being misinterpreted or misfiring, which mean that the normal electrical activity in the brain is being disrupted by the overactive electrical dischargers, it will causes the problem of communication between nerve cells. This will affect and confused the thinking part of the brain to respond chemically to a threat perceived by the primitive part of the brain as if the danger is real. In effect, the caudate nucleus is letting unnecessary thoughts and impulses through to the cortex where the thoughts and emotions combine; and an over active cingulate nucleus at the brains centre, which helps shift attention from one th ought or behavior to another, becomes over active and gets stuck on certain behaviors, thoughts or ideas. The cingulate is that part of the brain which tells the OCD sufferer that something terrible will happen if the compulsions are not carried out (Anxiety Care, 2011). Besides that, some researchers have suggested that OCD results from the imbalance of the neurotransmitter in the brain which is known as serotonin (Pauls, Mundo, Kennedy, 2002). A study by Stengler-Wenzke, Muller, Angermeyer, Sabri and Hesse (2004) revealed that there is a significant reduction of serotonin transporter availability in the midbrain and upper brainstem in OCD patients. The reduction of serotonin transporter availability may reflect a reduced number of serotonergic neurons that may result in low level of serotonin. Serotonin is responsible for transporting impulses to and away from the nerves (Dejdar, 2006). The physiological activity of serotonin starts from the brainstem in groups of brain cells called raphe nucleus (Function of Serotonin, 2009). Serotonin brain cells then spread to various regions of the central nervous system by branching out throughout the brain(Function of Serotonin, 2009). In a case reported by Cohen, Angladette, Benoit, and Pierrot-Deseilligny (1999), a 59-year-old man developed obsessive-compulsive disorder symptoms after his head injury. The magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain scans showed a small contusion in the right orbitofrontal region. In the similar case, the single-photon emission CT (SPECT) showed greatly reduced blood flow in the orbitofrontal region of the 59-year-old man with OCD (Cohen et al., 1999). A study by Busatto et al. (2001) supported the findings as their research found reduced right cerebral blood flow in the right orbitofrontal cortex in OCD patients as compared with the healthy control group. Paulmann, Seifert, and Kotz (2009) explained that the orbitofrontal cortex is linked to a variety of cognitive and emotional functions. Gray, Braver, and Raichle (as cited in Bracha Brown, 2009) mentioned that emotion and cognition conjointly and equally contribute to the control of thought and behavior. Additionally, Pessoa (as cit ed in Bracha Brown, 2009) added that emotions and cognition not only strongly interact in the brain, but they are often integrated so that they jointly contribute to behavior. Hence, impairment of orbitofrontal cortex contributed to the intrusive thoughts and bizarre behavior of OCD patients (Swinson, Antony, Rachman, Richter, 1998).In particular, lesions of the human orbitofrontal cortex lead to large-scale changes in social and emotional behavior (Paulmann, Seifert, and Kotz, 2009). For example, patients with orbitofrontal lesions are reported to suffer from deficits in affective decision-making (Hornak, as cited in Paulmann, Seifert, and Kotz, 2009). Consistently, Swinson and his colleagues (1998) stated that OCD patients have difficulties in decision making. Psychological Aspects of OCD According to Salkovskis, Shafran, Rachman, and Freeston (1999), there are five mechanisms for the development of inflated responsibility which are critical for the development of OCD. Inflated responsibility refers to an excessive sense of personal responsibility related to unwanted or upsetting thoughts (Abramowitz, Deacon, Woods, Tolin, 2004). The first mechanism is being given too much of responsibility. A child or adolescent, who assumed responsibility during early age due to incompetent parenting, might believe that they are responsible for the negative consequences over which they have little or no control. This is related to the parental communications, where the child is scapegoated for negative occurrences whether or not they are in fact responsible. Through this type of upbringing, Salkovskis et al. stated that the child will develop and accept a wide sense of responsibility and are inclined to translate it into a high degree of conscientiousness, marked by a dedication to work and an acute sense of social obligations. The second mechanism in influencing a person to be OCD is the exposure to rigid or extreme codes of conduct. Strict behavioral codes being instilled by schools, authorities or religion will lead to the development and the reinforcement of attitudes about responsibility. In the study by Abramowitz et al., they found evidence that religion and other cultural influences affect the presentation of OCD symptoms. Rasmussin and Tsuang (as cited in Abramowitz et al., 2004) observed that strictly religious patients often had religious themes to their obsessional thoughts and compulsive rituals. An early study by Khanna and Channabasavanna (as cited in Abramowitz et al., 2004) noted a large portion of symptoms related to contamination and washing among Hindus with OCD, and commented that Indian culture emphasizes on the issues of purity and cleanliness. The third mechanism for the development of inflated responsibility is being given too little responsibility. The responsibility is withheld from the child by the parents. Worries are prominent in the family system and the parents are likely to be excessively anxious and fearful themselves, they will be overprotected toward their child. This will thus convey a sense that danger is around the corner to the child. When growing up, the child will have difficulty in leaving home and being independent; he or she is unprepared to cope with the dangers that the child believe to have in the world outside. Salkovskis et al. further mentioned that leaving home is usually marked by the emergence of OCD symptoms in the child. The lack of preparation to deal with the world outside will frighten the child and leads to the development of anxiousness in the child. The fourth route to the development of an inflated sense of responsibility is the sudden critical incidents that happened where a persons action or inaction contributed to serious misfortune. An example illustrated by Salkocskis et al. on a young doctor who gave the wrong prescription to the patients. Although it did not have any adverse effects on the patient, the young doctor was reprimanded intensely by his senior supervisor. Since then, he developed repetitive checking on the prescription and spent an inordinate amount of time in checking the details of each prescription. Another factor that contributed to the exaggerated sense of responsibility occurred from an incident that is in fact coincidental but the person erroneously assumed that their thoughts, actions or inactions contributed to a serious misfortune. This happened though the learning experiences, for example, when a child angrily wishes an adult dead; soon afterwards the adult, by unfortunate coincidence, actually dies (Salkocskis et al., 1999). The child will think that it is his fault and he has caused the death but actually it was just a coincidence. Salkocskis et al. described that people who are prone to the cognitive bias of thought-action fusion are the ones who are most likely to experience inflations of responsibility and thus contribute to the origins of OCD. PHYSIOLOGICAL TREATMENT Medication Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor The pathogenesis of OCD has been linked to abnormal serotonin levels. Drugs which increase levels of serotonin in the brain have been shown to improve symptoms of OCD. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the most commonly prescribed antidepressants to deal with OCD (Taylor, 2009). SSRIs included citalopram, fluoxetine, fluvoxamine, paroxetine and sertraline (Taylor, 2009). Taylor in his study discussed that SSRIs ease the anxious feeling of OCD patients by affecting the neurotransmitters of the brain that used to communicate between brain cells. SSRIs block the reuptake or re-absorption of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain. Changing the balance of serotonin seems to help brain cells send and receive chemical messages, which in turn boosts patients mood. Taylor explained that SSRIs are called selective because they seem to primarily affect serotonin, not other neurotransmitters. Side effects of SSRIs included nausea, headaches and insomnia (Taylor, 2009). In evaluating the safety and effectiveness of sertraline in children and adolescents, Cook et al. (2001) ran a study in United States. Their research indicated that long-term sertraline treatment was well tolerated and effective in the treatment of childhood and adolescent OCD. In consistent with the result of sertraline, studies has showed that fluoxetine, citalopram and fluvoxamine were well tolerate and effective in treating children and adolescent with OCD (Liebowitz et al., 2002; Riddle et al., 2001). Nonetheless, six adverse events occurred significantly more frequently in fluoxetine patients who experienced palpitations, weight loss, drowsiness, tremors, nightmares, and muscle aches (Riddle et al., 2001). Escitalopram, another type of SSRI has been examined by researchers in Malaysia in treating OCD patients (Hatim et al., 2008). The research reviewed that the risk of relapse for those treated with placebo appeared to be four times that of those treated with escitalopram. Moreover, the study suggested that escitalopram is well tolerated in Malaysian patients with OCD. No serious adverse event was reported throughout the study. A few milder side effects have been reported by the patients, such as dizziness, hypertension, delayed ejaculation, and throat tightness. The sample of the study, however, may be too small to yield broad generalizations. Serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor Serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) such as venlafaxine has been used to manage OCD. Researchers found that venlafaxine may be beneficial to individuals with OCD, including those who have not responded to prior SSRI trials (Hollander, Friedberg, Wasserman, Allen, Birnbaum, Koran, 2003SNRI works by inhibiting the reuptake of the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine (Donaldson, 2010). As low serotonin is associated with OCD, SNRI function to increase the amount of two neurotransmitters, serotonin and norepinephrine, and thus enhance the neuronal activity of the brain. The side effects of SNRI included nausea, restlessness, sexual dysfunctions, insomnia, and increased blood pressure (Bandelow, 2008). Tricyclic antidepressants One of the effective tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) that have been using to treat OCD is clomipramine. It was one of the first anti-obsession drugs prescribed in the 1960s, but is less prescribed now due to their unpleasant side effects (Goodman, 2011). The side effects of this drug included dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention, sexual dysfunction, weight gain, seizures, and cardiac side effects (Bandelow, 2008). Bandelow added that TCAs should be avoided in patients who are considered to be at risk of suicide, due to their potential cardiac and central nervous system toxicity after overdose. In general, the side effects of TCAs are more adverse than SSRIs. Therefore, it is usually recommended when the treatment with SSRIs have failed (Taylor, 2009). Neurosurgical treatment More than 10% of OCD patients remain incapacitated despite rigorously involving in medication trials and intensive behavior therapy (Kim et al., 2003). Several neurosurgical procedures have been used in OCD for treating such refractory patients. Cingulotomy is among the neurosurgical methods to deal with OCD. Cingulotomy defined by Carlson (2008) as the surgical destruction of the cingulum bundle, which connects the prefrontal cortex with the limbic system; helps to reduce intense anxiety and the symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder (p. 489). Anterior cingulotomy targets the anterior cingulate cortex and the fibers of the cingulum has been recently reported as being effective and safe (Dougherty, as cited in Kim et al., 2003). Study by Kim et al. (2003) aimed to to investigate OCD symptom improvements and to evaluate any cognitive changes and adverse effects after cingulotomy. Their study found no evidence of cognitive dysfunction including intelligence, memory and executive fun ction after cingulotomy compared with preoperative performances. In addition, seizure, urinary problems, chronic pain and suicide were not reported and other adverse effects, such as headache, insomnia and weight changes did not continue for more than 3 months. Taken together, they suggested that cingulotomy could be safe in terms of cognitive and other side-effects. Furthermore, deep brain stimulation (DBS), a procedure in which surgically implanted electrodes stimulate localized brain structures, has also been reported to be effective in patients with OCD when the anterior limb of internal capsule was targeted (Nuttin et al., as cited in Cannistraro et al., 2007). Deep brain stimulation surgery involves the placement of tiny implantable electrodes into abnormally functioning areas of the brain through burr holes in the skull; then a neurostimulator, which is commonly implanted near the collarbone; an insulated wire that connects the electrode to the neurostimulator (Brown University, 2003). The electrodes emit pulses of electrical stimulation to block abnormal brain activity that can cause obsessions, moods, and anxieties associated with psychiatric disorders (Brown University, 2003). A study conducted by Gabriels, Cosyns, Nuttin, Demeulemeester, Gybels (2003) concluded that deep brain stimulation may have important therapeutic benefits on psy chopathology in OCD and no harmful side-effects were detected during follow-up up to 33 months (see Appendix A, for case study). However, Greenberg, Rauch, and Haber (2010) stated that hemorrhages on device insertion may have long-lasting or permanent consequences, although relatively rare. Infection represents another significant risk (Greenberg et al., 2010). On the other hand, Greenberg and his colleagues added that the great appeal of DBS in comparison with lesions is that it permits focal, adjustable, and reversible modulation of the brain. Specifically, various combinations of electrodes can be activated, at adjustable polarity, intensity, and frequency; DBS thus permits flexible neuromodulation. The great clinical advantage of this is that parameters can be optimized for individual patients. In cases in which no beneficial settings can be identified despite extensive efforts, the electrodes can be inactivated, and the devices may be removed (Greenberg et al., 2010). DISCUSSION CONCLUSION Overdose TCAs have been revealed to be lethal in overdose (Bandelow, 2008). These drugs should be avoided in patients who are considered to be at risk of suicide, due to their potential cardiac and central nervous system toxicity after overdose (Bandelow, 2008). Although the benefit of SSRI and SNRI is that they are relatively safe in overdose (Bandelow, 2008), the issues of associating SNRI with other substances need to be highlighted. During 2010, Donaldson revealed that overdose with SNRIs has commonly occurred in combination with alcohol and/or other drugs. The adverse event of combining alcohol with SNRI medication include electrocardiogram changes, sinus and ventricular tachycardia, bradycardia, hypotension (low blood pressure), altered level of consciousness (from somnolence to coma), rhabdomyolysis, seizures, vertigo, liver necrosis, and death have been reported. Besides that, Donaldson emphasized that SNRI medications should not be taken by patients also taking monoamine oxidase inhi bitors (MAOIs). This can lead to increased serotonin levels and cause serotonin syndrome which is a rare, but serious and potentially life-threatening condition unfortunately often mistaken for a viral illness, anxiety, neurological disorder or worsening psychiatric condition). Therefore, it is vital to address the adverse events of drug overdose and the combination with other substances. Relapse Relapse and remission is common in OCD and many patients will never be free of the disease (Taylor, 2009). Earlier study in 1973 by Capstick (as cited in Ravizza, 1998) stated that if the SSRI is withdrawn or reduced too quickly, the patient is able to relate the time of onset of the recurrence of the obsessions, usually 36 to 48 hours after the former dose. In a follow-up study of 15 patients with OCD who responded to clomipramine, Thoren et al. (as cited in Ravizza, 1998) reported that 6 patients who had stopped taking the drug had a recurrence of their symptoms within a few weeks of discontinuation. A research group by Ravizza et al., 1996, the group completed a 2-year, open-label follow-up study of 130 patients with OCD who had previously responded to 6 months treatment with clomipramine, fluoxetine or fluvoxamine. At the end of the 2 years of follow-up, the relapse rate was 77 to 85% among those patients who discontinued pharmacotherapy. Implication Most research related to the physiological treatment has been studied for not more than five years. Therefore, the effects of long term treatment have yet to be observed. However, when the discontinuation of treatment is discussed, researchers indicated several relapse problems and adverse events. A study stated that response to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) may be influenced by body weight, age, sex, and genetic makeup, and therefore can vary between individuals of different ethnic populations (Hatim et al., 2008). Malaysia as a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic country, the use of treatment in patient with OCD should be wise and well considered. The lack of physiological treatment in Malaysia is the major limitation for the implication of treatment toward Malaysian. On the issue of unresponsive to treatment, researcher found the benefits of switching between venlafaxine and paroxetine for OCD. In 2004, the Brown University reported that 56% of patients who were not responding to venlafaxine benefited from a switch to paroxetine; 19% of patients who were not responding to paroxetine benefited from a switch to venlafaxine.Despite the evidence that clomipramine and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are effective in the pharmacology management of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), between 40% and 60% of the patients suffering from it show only a partial or no symptom improvement (Marazziti et al., 2008). Therefore, Marazziti and his group conducted a research to examine the effectiveness of combined treatment by associating clomipramine and citalopram in the treatment of OCD. The study found that combination treatment is effective and well-tolerated for OCD patients, and much more effective than treating patients with single drug, su ch as SSRI or TCA. In prescribing medication for the OCD patients in Malaysia, the doctor should inform the possible side effects of the medication to the patients. The adverse events that would occur in combination of substances should be stressed and patients should be education on the appropriate dosage and time to consume the medication. Limitations on the use of medications include unwillingness of approximately 25% of OCD patients to take medications which they view, globally, as a form of contamination (Greist, 1998); side effects that interfere with comfortable use of medications; and continuing costs of medications that are necessary to prevent relapse associated with discontinuation. Besides physiological treatment, psychotherapy has been recommended to deal with OCD. The consensus guidelines produced by the American Psychiatric Association (2000) suggested that cognitive, behavioral therapy (CBT) was the first choice treatment for children and young people. Waite and Williams (2009) mentioned that CBT alone or in combination with medication appears to be more effective and less likely to lead to relapse. More recently, National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (2011) described a stepped care model beginning with self-help materials for mild cases through CBT, medication and finally combined treatments. The Malaysian Psychiatric Association reviewed a research being done by Saxena et al. (2009) indicated the effectiveness of CBT on brain glucose metabolism in OCD. They discovered significant changes in brain activity solely as the result of four weeks of intensive cognitive-behavioral therapy in ten OCD patients. Reduction of thalamic activity, decrea ses in glucose metabolism has been observed after the intervention. However, the study also showed a significant increase in activity in an area of the brain called the right dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, a region involved in reappraisal and suppression of negative emotions. The major constraints on the use of CBT include patient unwillingness to invest the time and energy. This may be due to patients fear that their anxiety will be too great when they expose themselves to their triggers. As the conclusion, there are several causes of OCD which involved both biological and psychological aspects. In introduc